Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grape juice. Growing grapes for wine is one of the world's most important farming activities, and the industry is a major feature of the economy of many wine-producing countries. Wines may be either red, white, or rosé and also dry, medium, or sweet. They fall into three basic categories: natural, or "table," wines, with an alcohol content of 8 to 14 percent, generally consumed with meals; sparkling wines, containing carbon dioxide, of which champagne is archetypal; and fortified wines, with an alcohol content of 15 to 24 percent, drunk either as an aperitif or with dessert, depending on their sweetness. The various types include port, sherry, and aromatic wines and bitters, such as vermouth.
HISTORY
Cultivation of the vine began several thousand years before Christ and is mentioned many times in the Old Testament. The ancient Egyptians made wine; the early Greeks exported it on a considerable scale.
During the Roman Empire vine cultivation was extended to such a degree that a surplus ensued, and in AD 92 the emperor Domitian decreed that half the vines outside Italy be uprooted. When replanting was later permitted, vineyards extended into northern France and Germany and even into southern England.
The Middle Ages, AD c.400-1200, saw little progress in viticulture. From about 1200, monasteries kept alive the art of wine making. Later the nobility also owned extensive vineyards. The French Revolution and the secularization of the German vineyards by Napoleon, however, removed many vineyards from ecclesiastical hands.
From the beginning of the 13th century, the wines of Bordeaux (an area under the English crown from 1152 to 1435) were commonly shipped to England, the Hanseatic ports, and the Low Countries. By the 14th century wines from Spain and Portugal were also widely exported. Drinking habits were largely governed by changing fashions at court, political relations with producing countries, and changing rates of excise duty. During the 18th century heavy duties on French wines and an English alliance with Portugal led to a sharp rise in English consumption of Portuguese wines.
For convenience in commerce, the Bordeaux merchants classified their finest red wines as early as 1725, but it was not until 1855 that such a classification, based on the market price for each wine, received official recognition. The wines of the Médoc district were divided into five classes, or crus. The 1855 classification stands today with only one recent significant change.
During the middle and second half of the 19th century the European vineyards suffered from a series of disastrous diseases and pests, particularly mildew, or Oidium, and the plant louse, Phylloxera. First discovered in 1863, Phylloxera spread across Europe, destroying the vines by attacking their roots. Not until about 1880 was the grafting of European vine species onto immune American rootstock accepted as the only viable solution. Selective replanting also led to improved grapes.
Simultaneously, a movement began to ensure the authenticity of wine, culminating (1936) in France when the appellation controlée (quality control) law, now the model for similar legislation in other countries, came into effect. The law allows only wine made from grapes grown in the Champagne region, for example, to be called champagne.
WORLDWIDE PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION
This table lists world wine production in 2002. The top 20 countries are ranked by number, and their production is given in metric tons. This table lists per-capita wine consumption in 2001 for the top 30 countries. The countries are ranked by number, and their per-capita consumption is given in liters.
WORLD WINE PRODUCTION
(ranked by country, 2002)Country Rank Production
(metric tons)
France 1 5,199,930
Italy 2 4,460,413
Spain 3 3,444,310
United States 4 2,540,000
Australia 5 1,220,372
Argentina 6 1,215,000
China 7 1,080,000
Germany 8 1,017,595
South Africa 9 761,000
Portugal 10 626,500
Chile 11 575,220
Greece 12 500,000
Romania 13 500,000
Hungary 14 380,000
Russian Federation 15 343,000
Brazil 16 320,000
Austria 17 260,000
Croatia 18 220,000
Moldova 19 210,000
Uzbekistan 20 188,400
NOTE: Per Capita consumption (table on right) is based on the Total Population of each country. Figures would be higher if based on drinking age population, which can vary by country.
Conversion: liters x .26418 = gallons. PER-CAPITA WINE CONSUMPTION
(ranked by country, 2001)Country Rank Per-Capita
Consumption
(liters)
Luxembourg 1 59.22
France 2 57.17
Italy 3 52.92
Portugal 4 46.74
Croatia 5 43.20
Switzerland 6 42.37
Spain 7 34.57
Argentina 8 32.57
Georgia 9 31.88
Hungary 10 31.56
Slovenia 11 31.13
Austria 12 30.46
Uruguay 13 29.51
Denmark 14 28.86
Greece 15 27.75
Germany 16 24.21
Belgium 17 24.12
Macedonia 18 23.81
Romania 19 20.99
Netherlands 20 20.95
Australia 21 20.54
Bulgaria 22 19.66
United Kingdom 23 16.97
New Zealand 24 15.86
Sweden 25 15.86
Cyprus 26 15.16
Chile 27 14.68
Moldova 28 13.62
Yugoslavia 29 13.11
Ireland 30 12.38
France
French wines lead the world in quality. The area adjacent to the port of Bordeaux is the home of the widely planted "noble" vine, the Cabernet Sauvignon, which, with other related varieties, principally Cabernet Franc and Merlot, produces such famous red wines as the châteaux Lafite-Rothschild, Latour, Margaux, and Mouton-Rothschild in the Médoc district; Haut-Brion from the Graves; Cheval-Blanc and Ausone in Saint Emilion; and Petrus in Pomerol. Equally renowned is Château d'Yquem, a luscious white wine produced in Sauternes from Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon grapes. A large number of other châteaux produce a vast quantity of red and white wine of middle and lesser quality.
Burgundy is a smaller region but produces many famous wines from two related grape varieties: Pinot Noir for reds and Chardonnay for whites. The best reds come from the Côte d'Or, a narrow strip of hilly land that follows the course of the Saône River and extends roughly from Dijon for 60 km (37 mi) south to Chagny, a town 20 km (12 mi) to the south of Beaune, the municipal heart of the Burgundian wine trade. The Côte d'Or is traditionally divided between the stronger, heartier red wines of the Côte de Nuits, such as Gevrey-Chambertin, Chambolle-Musigny, Vosne-Romanée, and Nuits-Saint-Georges, and the more delicate reds of the Côte de Beaune, such as Beaune, Pommard, and Volnay. Of equal standing are the dry white Burgundies: Chablis from the north; and Corton-Charlemagne, the Montrachets, and the Meursaults from the southern part of the Côte d'Or. Southern Burgundy has extensive vineyards producing good red wines of lesser quality: Macon Rouge, Mercurey, and Beaujolais from the Gamay grape, plus dry whites, including the currently popular and overpriced Pouilly-Fuissé.
The Champagne region in northern France produces indisputably the best sparkling wine in the world. Other good sparkling wines are produced in the Loire, Burgundy, and Savoie. The Rhône valley produces excellent full-bodied reds such as Châteauneuf-du-Pape, Côte Rotie, and Hermitage; rare and subtle whites such as Condrieu and Château Grillet; and the most renowned rosé, Tavel. Alsace, in the Rhine valley to the east, produces consistently good quality white wines named for the grape variety: Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Muscat, Sylvaner, and others. The Loire valley, in west central France, produces excellent, light, and refreshing white wines such as Sancerre and Muscadet; the well-known rosé d'Anjou; and the minor reds Chinon and Bourgeuil. The Midi and Provence regions in the south of France produce a great deal of ordinary wine, as well as some aperitif and dessert wines and popular rosés.
United States
Although wine is made in no fewer than 34 states, only California wines can be said to rival those of France. French wines are usually named by the region, town, or vineyard where they are produced, and, occasionally, by a generic name (Beaujolais). California wines, on the other hand, are often named for the principal grape variety used in making the wine. The finest California red wines are made from the Cabernet Sauvignon grape. Others include the Pinot Noir, Grenache (a rosé grape), Zinfandel, and Petite Sirah.
Fine whites are led by the Chardonnay, by Pinot Blanc, and by some late-harvested Rieslings. Wines from the Chenin Blanc and Semillon grapes are not in the same class. The finest wines are made in the Napa and Sonoma valleys north of San Francisco, in nearby Sonoma and Mendocino counties, and in an expanding grape-growing area to the south of San Francisco Bay as far as Monterey. Mass-produced table and dessert wines come mainly from the Central Valley.
WINE MAKING
The quality and quantity of grapes depend on geographical, geological, and climatic conditions in the vineyards, and on the grape variety and methods of cultivation. Some of these factors may be governed by local laws.
Harvesting
The crop is harvested in the autumn when the grapes contain the optimum balance of sugar and acidity. For the sweet white wines of Bordeaux and Germany, picking is delayed until the grapes are affected by a beneficial mold, Botrytis cinerea, which concentrates the juice by dehydration.
Parker's Wine
Buyer's Guide
Robt M. Parker, Jr.
(of The Wine Advocate)
Vinification
For red wine, the grapes are crushed immediately after picking and the stems generally removed. The yeasts present on the skins come into contact with the grape sugars, and fermentation begins naturally. Cultured yeasts, however, are sometimes added. During fermentation the sugars are converted by the yeasts to ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol extracts color from the skins; the longer the vatting period, the deeper the color. Glycerol and some of the esters, aldehydes, and acids that contribute to the character, bouquet, and taste of the wine are by-products of fermentation.
The Vintner's Art:
How Great Wines
Are Made
Hugh Johnson
Traditional maturation of red wine, as practiced, for instance, in Bordeaux, then takes up to two years in 50-gallon oak casks, during which time the wine is racked — drawn off its lees, or sediment — three or four times into fresh casks to avoid bacterial spoilage. Further aging is usually advisable after bottling.
The juice of most grape varieties is colorless. Grapes for white wine are also pressed immediately after picking, and the must starts to ferment. Fermentation can proceed until it is completed, which will make a dry white wine; or it can be stopped to make a sweeter wine. Maturation of white Burgundy and some California Chardonnays still takes place in oak casks, but vintners now tend to use large tanks of such modern materials as stainless steel. Minimum contact with the air retains the freshness of the grapes.
To make rosé wines, the fermenting grape juice is left in contact with the skins just long enough for the alcohol to extract the required degree of color. Vinification then proceeds as for white wine.
The best and most expensive sparkling wines are made by the champagne method, in which cultured yeasts and sugar are added to the base wine, inducing a second fermentation in the bottle. The resulting carbon dioxide is retained in the wine. Other methods, such as carbonation, are also practiced.
The alcohol content of fortified wines is raised by adding grape spirits. With port and madeira, brandy added during fermentation kills off the yeasts, stopping fermentation, and leaves the desired degree of natural grape sugar in the wine. Sherry is made by adding spirit to the fully fermented wine. Its color, strength, and sweetness are then adjusted to the required style before bottling.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL VALUE OF WINE
Like other commodities, wine is subject to the laws of supply and demand. Wine is an agricultural product, and the time between planting new acreage and mature grape production is relatively long. Since the end of World War II, the demand for table wine in the West has increased steadily. Also during this period the classic fine wines of Europe, with their traditional and limited production methods, have increased considerably in price. At the same time newer regions, including California, have increased and improved production to provide the consumer with everyday drinking wines.
The great increase in wine consumption in the United States and elsewhere has by no means saturated production capacity; indeed, there is almost a permanent world overproduction of wine. The price of fine wines will likely increase still further under the impetus of the demand for them, both for drinking and for investment buying. In the long term the price of fine and everyday wines will be affected by the performance of the economy of the West and the consequent affluence of the average consumer, and by inflation.
BOTTLE STORAGE
Wine bottles should be laid on their side to prevent the corks from drying out and the air getting at the wine. There should be no great fluctuation in temperature: 13-16 degrees C (55-60 degrees F) for reds, 10-13 degrees C (50-55 degrees F) for whites being ideal. Humidity should be 70 to 80 percent, and the storage place should be free from drafts, light, and vibration.
SERVING
Red wine should be served at room temperature, 18-22 degrees C (65-72 degrees F). White and rosé wines should be at refrigerator temperature, 6-10 degrees C (43-50 degrees F). Only wines that have thrown a sediment in the bottle, such as vintage port, red Bordeaux, and red Burgundy, need be decanted before drinking.